Reason for Success of Biogas Program in Nepal
-Agni Prasad Chaulagain
Abstract
Nepal is situated in the south Asian region covering a total land area of 1,47,181 square kilometers. It has a population of 24 million. Nepal is agricultural country, more than 90% of the population is involved in agriculture and per capita income is about US$ 180/210. Agriculture accounts for more than 40% of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product). The energy situation in Nepal is characterized by very low energy consumption per capita of 14.06 GJ (WECS, 1994). The total domestic energy demand Nepal was estimated to be 248 million GJ in 1990/91 and this has been increasing by an average of 2.4 percent per annum. Almost 35 % of export earning is needed for the import of petroleum products and coal, which together meet about 8% of total energy demand. We have a Forest (1000 sq.km)39% Deforestation (% change 1990-2000) is 1.8% Water use (% of total resources)13.8% CO2 emissions 4.7 Ton, Access to improved water sources (% of urban pop.) 85%Access to sanitation (% of urban pop.) 75%, Energy use per capita (kg of oil equivalent) 343 and the Electricity use per capita (kwh) 47percent.
Looking at the nation's energy demand and living standard of the people, biogas technology is one of the reliable alternative energy sources used for cooking and lighting purpose. Biogas technology has proved to be very successful in the country since it not only produces gas for household purpose but also provides good fertilizer in the form of digested slurry. Thus, Nepal’s biogas programme has been considered one of the most successful program in the country. This has been the result of standardization of design, an extensive system of quality control and financial incentive provided to the users for the installation of biogas plants.
Program’s review
History of Biogas Development
As a first biogas plant in Nepal was father B.R Sauboll, a Belgian teacher at Godavari St. Xavier's School, built a demonstration plant in 1955. In 1968 Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) built a plant for an exhibition in Kathmandu. The Department of Agriculture installed 250 biogas plants during the fiscal year of 1975/76. The Agriculture Development Bank of Nepal (ADB/N) offered interest free loans for the installation of biogas plants. In 1974, Development and Consulting Service (DCS) built four biogas plants according to KVIC design. Gobar Gas and Agriculture Equipment Development Company Pvt. Ltd. was formed in 1977 with joint investment of the United Mission to Nepal (UMN), ADB/N and Nepal Fuel Corporation (which later on merged into the Timber Corporation of Nepal) based on DCS biogas extension organization. As it was difficult to introduce new technology, biogas in rural areas programme of the company was not encouraging in comparison to national potentialities. However, research on various design of biogas plant such as floating steel drum design, concrete fixed dome design, pre-cased tunnel design, plastic bag bio-digester, ferrocement gas holders, brick mortar dome, mud dome were tested and experimented. However, fixed dome design is the only one recognized design and became more popular in Nepal.
Various biogas appliances such as gas pipe, mixture machine, gas tap, stove, lamps, water drains, gas meter were developed and tested. Similarly experiments with various alternative feedstocks such as Eupatorium species, water hyacinth, night soil, industrial wastes (waste from paper industry, brewery and sugar factory) were experimented. Slurry coming from the plant was applied to various crops both vegetable and cereals. It was also used for feeding fish and animals. However, most of the research works were limited to papers and pilot projects. After finishing the result these thing did not apply in the practical. However, after some time, cause of the increasing price of the chemical fertilizer, helath awareness they were applying the slurry management practices.
Research were also conducted on the application of gas for running engines for agro-processing, pumping water for irrigation and generating electricity. 38 plants were installed but due to techno-socio problems, none of them is currently functioning.
Current Status of Biogas
At present biogas Company have been recognized for the installation of biogas plants and more than 123,000 biogas plants were in operation (Oct.2003). These largely comprised of fixed dome design plants have been installed in the country. This figure amounts to 8.78% of the total potentials of 1.4 million. Biogas Support Programme (BSP) was introduced in 1992 to increase the number of additional 100000-biogas plants. Now,we cross that target make success in this work. In addition, the next five year target is 2,00,000 number of plants. After that program, 23.07% of the total potentiality will recover.
We have also introduced the kitchen waste material plant(only four plant in the kathmandu valley for research purpose),sluter house biogas plant in under construction in the kathmandu valley,Urban waste management plant under construction process in the kathmandu valley(Bhaktapur municipality) with help of German government.Water grass management plant construction in the Koshi Tappu wild life reserve for the proper utilization of the grass water with the help of Finland Embassy Kathmandu.Community biogas plant constructed in the Chitwan wild life reserve.
Distribution of Biogas
Biogas construction companies have installed biogas plants in 69 districts of the country. The most potential areas for biogas installation are Rupendehi, Siraha, Dhanusa, Morang, Sarlahi, Syangja, Gulmi, Sindhuli, Khotang, Dhading, JhaiDa, Chitwan and Kaski districts.
Fig.1:Nepal map with Geographical Division
Biogas Program in Nepal
His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG/N) has been assisted by the Netherlands Ministry of foreign affairs and the Directorate General for International Co-operation (DGIS) though the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV/Nepal) is implementing a biogas project under Biogas Support Program (BSP). A proposal called the Biogas Support Program was prepared and submitted with Co-operation with HMG/N, ADB/N and GGC to DGIS in May 1991. The objectives of the proposal were to reduce the rate of deforestation and improve health and sanitation in rural areas and to increase agricultural production. With these developments, some ING0s also started to play an important role in the promotion of biogas in their working areas.
Biogas Institutions and Their Services
Biogas Construction Company and Appliance Manufacturer
The service for the construction, after sales service, user training service provided by the company. They provide the three years after sales service to the biogas plant owner.
Services provided by the Biogas Company
Biogas company provides a guarantee of 3 years on structural parts of the plant; such as dome, digester, inlet, outlet, turret and water drain pit and one-year guarantee on appliances and fitting works. RS 600 are charged as guarantee fee as well as for visits conducted by the company. Technicians of company visit at least each plant once a year following the installation of plants supplied by them. SNV/BSP has devised 78 parameters for ensuring the quality of plant construction and its proper functioning.
Market Potential and Demand Growth
One of the reports on technical biogas potentials in Nepal (Wim J Van Nes, 1992) stated that technical potential of biogas in Nepal is estimated at 1.4 million. This figure was based on the national data on the number of household and dung production. However, considering economic and social potential, the real market potential is estimated to be about 50 percent of the technical potential. If we consider the whole household then the potential number is larger then the 1.4 million.
Government Policies for the Promotion of Biogas
HMG/N policy regarding the development of alternative energy including biogas technologies in the past has been widely criticized for its inconsistency and irregularity. The first time the Government of Nepal provided interest free subsidies to promote biogas plant was in 1974/75. The next year, the government granted a 6 percent interest subsidy on ADB/N loans to farmers for biogas installation. Subsequently, in the year 1982/83, under the Intensive Rice Crop Development Programme, the government provided a subsidy of RS 5500 per biogas plant in Dhanusa, Sunsari, Rupandehi and Banke district. A total of 82 plants were established in those four districts.
During the Seventh Five Year Plan, the Government made a policy commitment to encourage the installation of biogas plants in the country by deciding to provide an ambitious target of 4000 plants along with a subsidy of 25% on the construction costs and 50% interest subsidy on loan from ADB/N. Although the subsidy was given only in the last two years of the Seventh Five Year Plan, a total of 3862 plants were installed. Recognizing the potentials of biogas, some policies regarding its development were reflected in the Eighth Five Year Plan document. It was only in 1987 that a plan for the installation of biogas plant was first incorporated into a national plan document. (Seventh Five Year Plan 1987- 92).
In the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) which envisaged government efforts in developing alternative and decentralized energy source including provision for an institutional set up for the development of alternative energy in Nepal. The objective was to gradually replace imported fuels by indigenous energy sources that could be locally exploited.
In the 9th five-year Plan 1998-2003, a target of 90000-biogas plant installation has been set. In keeping with its target the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) have been established. As a promotion or participation fee, RS.500 per plant is being collected by biogas company which would got into a fund set up by AEPC. To promote the program, HMG/N has exempted VAT on biogas plants and its accessories for the fiscal year 1998/99. The Government has also provided a subsidy of RS. 7000 for the plants installed in the Terai region and Kathmandu valley, RS. 10000 for plants installed in hilly districts and RS. 12000 for plants installed in remote hills.
Similarly in the 10th five year plan 2004-2009 the target of the biogas plant is 2,00,000 number. Governments main theme is “Poverty alleviation by renewable/alternative energy.” This five-year period government provides subsidies Nrs.6000.00, 9000.00 and 12,000.00 according to the geographical condition, biogas penetration ratio and the living standard of the particular places.
Identification of Key Stakeholders
In order to commercialize biogas technology it should be market oriented, autonomous and adequately structured sector with maximum involvement of private organizations and also necessary to involve the Community Based Organization (CBOs), Non Governmental Organization (NGOs), International Non Governmental Organization (INGOs). These key biogas stakeholders are identified as follows
Fig.2, Linkage between stakeholders
Biogas Users
The active commitment of the users is to participate in installation and smooth operation of their biogas plants. They should be responsible for collecting construction materials such as sand, stone / bricks, pebbles etc., provide labors for back filling, making compost pit and regular and adequate feedings, so that the plant is properly maintained.
Recognized Biogas Company
There are around 3000 staffs working in the field of biogas technology. Mason, supervisor, After Sales Service Technicians training provided by the Engineering College. Trainer’s training provided by the IEDI.Time by time SNV/BSP also provides the training to the Company manager, refresher training for the technical and administrative staff of the company. Now, it is challenging work for the biogas sector in Nepal, because the target number of the biogas plant is 2,00.000 within the five years.
Biogas Appliances Manufacturers
With growing number of biogas plants challenging work for the future, more and more appliances like mixing devices, main gas pipe, water drain, gas tap, gas stove and lamps have to be manufactured. It is also necessary to obtain Research and development activities in the field of biogas appliances.
Nepal Biogas Promotion Group (NBPG) And Other NG0s
Nepal Biogas Promotion Group (NBPG) is the umbrella organization of the biogas companies. It is a non-profit making organization for the sustainable development of biogas program in Nepal. It has been formed on the initiative of recognized biogas construction companies for the promotion, extension, co-ordination, research, training and standardization of biogas technology in the country. The overall objective of NBPG is to develop and disseminate biogas as an indigenous sustainable energy sources in rural areas of the country.
Banks
At present Agriculture Development Bank (ADB/N) , Rastriya Banijya Bank (RBB) and Nepal Bank Limited (NBL) and the micro credit institution, co-operatives have been involved in financing biogas plants. However, the trend of installing biogas plants paying liquid cash has been increasing day by day. Some of the reasons may be due to the lengthy procedure of banks, high interest rate (14 %) and bank policies (repayment period, opening of accounts with 5% of the loan to be taken etc.). Banks should provide quality, Quick, and simple services for clients wanting to use biogas to be followed by easy financing procedures. After providing support to the Co-operative, it is easy to take loan and construct biogas plant in the country.
Biogas Support Program (SNV/BSP)
The Biogas Support Program was initiated in July 1992 to develop and promote the use of biogas in Nepal. For the first two phases of the program, BSP I and II, program support was provided by His Majesty's Government of Nepal, the Netherlands Development Cooperation in Nepal (SNV/N) and the Netherlands Development Agency (NEDA). With the start of the third phase of the program (BSP III: 1997 - 2002), the German Government, through KFW, enforced the program's support with financial assistance to the subsidy and credit component.
Objectives:
· To develop a market oriented and commercially viable biogas industry in the country.
· To construct 2,00,000 biogas plants within five years
· To ensure the continued operation of all biogas plants constructed under the program.
· To research biogas related topics and to develop improved methods and techniques.
· To assure that the slurry, a by-product of biogas plants, is brought to proper use.
· To develop the biogas sector and give it an institutional outlook.
· To apply Research and Development activities in biogas sector.
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC)-HMG/N
HMG/N has set up AEPC, under the Ministry of Science and Technology. The role of AEPC is to network with agencies and departments of the government at the central and Policy making level. It has also been involved in quality control of about 200 biogas plants as a pilot project. It has been recommended that AEPC should be involved only at policy level issues but should not be involved in the implementation process. Similarly, it should involve in monitoring and evaluation of the program as well as in developing linkages with donor agencies.
Reasons for the Success of the Program
Biogas plants have been popular and demands for their installation have been increasing in comparison to past 15 years progress. There are several factors for the popularity and rapid growth of biogas technology in Nepal. Here are some of the reasons for the success of the programme.
Application of Biogas and Slurry: Biogas, as the word implies, has its emphasis on gas production. No direct. Cash income can be generated from this and consequently biogas is not seen as an attractive fuel alternative for marginal farmers. However, slurry extension program has been carried out for high crop yielding.
Well Proven Design and Quality Control Mechanism: The quality of biogas plant is a major concern for commercializing the technology. A non-function biogas plant will damage the reputation of the technology. Considering these facts all companies have introduced a well-proven design of fixed dome plant. BSP has devised 73 parameters for ensuring the quality of the plant and its proper functioning. In order to promote the plants further among people in the lesser economic brackets, the construction cost of the plant need to be reduced, alternative feed materials to be identified, gas yield at low temperatures should be increased and efforts made to use biogas and slurry for diversified uses For all these purpose, intensive research and development needs be carried out.
Fig.3: Biogas plants Map
Fig.4; Raw materials and labor required
SN Particulars Quantity Plant Size Remarks
4 6 8 10
1 Bricks Nos. 1200 1400 1600 1800
2 Stone Cu.m 4 5 7 9
3 Cement 50kg/ Bags 12 14 16 18
4 Rod Kg 10.5 10.5 15 20
5 Aggregate (Gravel) Bags 30 35 40 45
6 Sand Bags 60 70 80 100
7 Unskilled Labor Nos. 22 26 30 40
Fig.5: Size wise Appliances Required
SN Appliances Unit Quantity Unit price Remarks
4 6 8 10
1 Stove Set 1 1 2 2 560
2 Mixture Set 1 1 1 1 725
3 Paint Liter 1 1 1 2 275
4 Inlet pipe Meter 4 4 4 4 360
5 Dome Gas Pipe Pcs 1 1 1 1 375
6 Valve Pcs 1 1 1 1 375
7 Water Drain Pcs 1 1 1 1 170
8 Gas Tape Pcs 1 1 2 2 245
9 Rubber Hose Pipe Meter 1 1 2 2 40
10 Over Head Charge 5100 5800 6200 6800
11 Fittings 815 860 949 949
9040 9785 11119 12494
Effective Promotion of the Technology: In Nepal, the technology has been promoted and popularized by various means such as leaflets, calendars, posters, manuals etc. Biogas users are supplied with operation and maintenance manual prepared in Nepali language. However, it has been recommended that such manuals should contain less diagrammatic illustrations so that people can easily understand. Besides, NGO have been networking for biogas promotion and awareness creation among users. .
Recognition of manufacturer: biogas companies use a single quotation; as a result, the cost of the plant is not competitive but rather stable. In addition the quality of construction are more or less the same. Similarly, there are biogas appliances manufacturer, who prepare the appliances and after the inspection and Quality control sent to the biogas company. Again, Biogas Company sent these items after the quality control.
Extension, Promotion and Dissemination: To increase the number of biogas plants, it has been felt that some promotion materials such as biogas posters, radio and TV advertisement and program, publication of calendar, leaflet on slurry be used and developed for distributed. Similarly extension materials such as user's repair and maintenance manual, construction manual and instruction service guideline are available for customers.
Human Resource Development: Regarding human resource development, some professional institute with professional personnel have been conducting both technical and management training for planners, policy makers and development workers. Every year an observation tour is organized for such people to see the performance of biogas plants both inside and outside the country.
Proper Channeling of Subsidies and Loan: Proper channeling of subsidies and loan support the program to be most successful. The cost of constructing various sizes of biogas plants (1998 quotation) is given as follows (US. $ 1=RS 75).
Fig.6: Cost of Particular plant size
Particular Plant Size
4 m3 6 m3 8 m3 10 m3 15 m3 20 m3
HIll Tarai Hill Tarai Hill tarai Hill Tarai Hill Tarai Hill Tarai
Biogas appliance 4471 4471 5026 5026 5765 5765 6115 6115 7395 7395 9702 9702
Construction cost 3700 3700 4100 4100 4500 4500 4800 4800 6000 6000 7500 7500
Guarantee charge 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
Promotion fee 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Construction material 10194 9874 11944 11624 14705 14065 17135 16495 22338 27378 27324 26364
Total 19465 19145 22170 21850 26070 25430 29150 28570 36833 35873 45626 44666
The price structure shows that the larger the plant size, the higher the cost of the plant. The cost of 4 m3 plant is Rs. 19,465 in the hills as compared to the cost of a 20 m3 plant, which is Rs 45626. In one of the studies, the financial estimate shows that there is a negative net benefit in case of 4m3 (o.76) and 6 m3 (0.96) size plants where as in others it ranges from 1.03 to 1.55 (WECS, 1995).
The payback period of an eight cubic meter, plant installed in hills and providing a subsidy of RS. 10000; is calculated at 4.3 years and the payback period of the same plant without subsidy is 7 years. Due to lengthy loan procedure and necessary obligation users prefer to install plants on cash rather than on loan (42% of the owners install plants on cash this year). This may be due to lack of appropriate finance mechanism.
Involvement of NGOs and ING0s
To increase the number of biogas plants it been felt that other organizations such as NG0s, INGO could play an important role in mobilizing demand for biogas plants. Several training program and promotional activities have been carried out for marketing biogas technology in the country.
Clean Energy and Infrastructure Development Bank
REPSO Nepal is supporting the proposed Clean Energy and Infrastructure Development Bank (CEIDB) to attract the needed investment and complete the paperwork to obtain the license from the Nepal Rastra (Central) Bank for its operation. Winrock completed the Private Placement Memorandum (PPM) for the CEIDB and has assisted the Promoters in making a number of presentations to prospective investors in London, Oslo, and Kathmandu. The primary objective of the CEIDB is to finance small hydropower as well as other renewable energy projects and clean energy infrastructure projects by mobilizing savings within Nepal.
Winrock is currently assisting the Promoters to raise capital for the bank and preparing to establish its role as Technical Advisor of the CEIDB for the first two years of its operation. The feasibility study of the CEIDB, designed to mobilize capital for environmentally responsible and commercially viable investments in Nepal, has been completed and operation is scheduled to commence later in 2003
Capital structure of bank
Initial paid up capital of Rs. 500 million (Approx US $ 6.4 million) made up of:
· 60 % contributions from local individual & Institutional investors - the PROMOTERS
· 10 % from foreign institutional investors
· 30 % from public.
Carbon Trading (Clean Development Mechanism)
Only constructing biogas plant is not an indicator of success. The sustainability of the biogas plant is main thing. If we will discuss about the environment saving then we must control the green house gases in the environment. By the Kyoto protocol, there is one limitation in carbon removing in the open environment. If developing countries apply such types of technology by which we control the green house gases in the environment (like as biogas, solar, wind energy etc..).Following this rule, we take all the plants Geographical Positioning Standing (GPS), Carbon Emission Ratio in the environment, Sustainability of the plat etc. After then we calculate the number of plant, carbon emission amount, then fixed the price of the carbon in the international market. After construction the plant, we can take benefit every year from the Carbon trading business. By that money we can provide subsidy to new farmer, can do research and development activities etc.
Government Policy and Support
In the past, Government policies were irregular and inconsistent regarding the support of biogas technology in Nepal. In 1974/75, the government provided interest free loans, in 1975/76, 6% interest on loan were levied, in 1982/83 a subsidy of RS 5500 per plant was provided only for Dhanusa, Sunsari, Rupendehi and Banke districts, in 1985/87, 50% subsidy on interest, in 1988/90 , 25% subsidy on construction and 50%' subsidy on interest , in 1990/91, 25% subsidy on total cost but only for 6 and 10 m3 plants, in 1991/95 capital subsidy of NRs 7000 for the plants installed in Terai and RS 10000 for the plants installed in hills, from 1995/96.
At present, the Government has been providing a subsidy of RS 6000 for plants installed in Terai and Kathmandu valley, RS 9000 for the plants installed in hills and RS 12000 for the plants installed in remote hills.
Monitoring and Evaluation:
There is continuous monitoring and evaluation of biogas programs both by external and local consultants. Monitoring of quality control during on site. Every year around ten percent plant’s quality control did by the Biogas Support Program (BSP) and the Nepal Biogas Promotion Group (NBPG). Within three year every plant visited by the After Sales Service Technician. As the key indicator of monitoring and evaluation is 98% biogas plant is in operation.
Good Co-ordination between its Partners
So far there has been good co-ordination between the institutions involved in National Biogas Support Program. They have created a Biogas co-ordination committee as well as slurry co-ordination committee consisting of AEPC, BSP ADB/N, Biogas Construction Company, NBPG, INGOs and other NG0s coalition.
Problems of the biogas sector
Ø Geographical condition: Nepal varies from 70m to 8848m height with snow covered mountain. We have difficulties in construction road and the transportation.
Ø Economic condition: Nepal economic condition is not good, Nepalese people can not afford the high price in the technology. Some amount of money provided by the German and Netherlands government.
Ø Education: People have not good knowledge about this technology. Their concern in environment is not very high, first priority in the food then other thing.
Ø Pathogenic problem: In toilet attached biogas plant’s slurry, there are some pathogens still alive. Therefore, it is necessary to remove the pathogen from slurry for health purpose.
Ø Proper utilization of slurry: Applying many programs about the slurry management practices, still we have some problem about the slurry management practices.
Reason for the success of biogas program in Nepal
· Well-proven / reliable biogas plant design and biogas appliances have been introduced following several years of research and development of the technology.
· A proper survey has been made for the potentiality as well as demand of the plants in the country.
· Promotion awareness activities have been carried out at different levels.
· Financial studies have been made and as a result, continuous subsidies are being provided. And proper channeling of subsidies.
· Technical capacities have been properly examined and local mason has been trained.
· Quality control visits are being made in order to maintain the standards of the plants.
· A good organizational networking such as Biogas co-ordination committee.
· Slurry extension program have been introduced to increase the market for biogas plants by maximizing the benefits of the operated biogas plants through improvements in the use of slurry in crop production. It has also supported in reducing the workload especially for women and girls.
· Nepal Biogas Promotion Group (NBPG) has been formed for the promotion and extension of biogas. Similarly Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) Government organization and the Biogas Support Program (BSP) for the overall program implementing organization.
· There has been a significant improvement in community environment due to the attachment and use of toilet in the biogas plants, saving on firewood’s, kerosene and ultimately the environment.
· Generation of employment in rural areas.
· Involvement of CBOs,NGOs,INGOs and other line agencies.
· Co-ordination between stakeholders
· Monitoring and evaluation
Conclusions
After achieve the success in the previous program, we have now some future challenges for doing;
1. 2,00,000 biogas plants will construct in the next five year
2. We have challenge to construct sewage and waste water treatment plant in urban areas.
3. We have necessary to construct septic tank treatment plant.
4. Highly promote the kitchen waste material plant.
5. Organic farming system application
6. Research and development in High altitude plant, Cost effective plant, various model and design, clean energy bank establishment, Carbon trading money management and utilization.
7. In the future, it shows the growing and sustainable sign in the country.
8. By the involvement of the partner and related organization, biogas technology future is very high. Many organization interested to support in Toilet attached biogas Plant (TAB).
Biogas Networking
In the present world is collecting in one place by the help of communication. However, in this biogas sector, which is necessary for the most of the world, is not in one place. We do not know each other’s technology and idea. Therefore, to share knowledge idea and view it is necessary to establish a good networking between the biogas stakeholders. In present condition, there are two-part big size plant manufacturer and the small size biogas plant manufacturer. It is necessary to take together both of them in the one way by networking and sharing.
References
1. Biogas 2002,published by Biogas Support Program (BSP).
2. Biogas News letter Vol.1, 2,3,4,5,published by Biogas Support Program(BSP)
3. National Planning commissions report and the Five years planning report.
4. Integrated impact assessment of the biogas technology report of the 2002,by the Biogas Support Program.
5. B. Martin – Bio energy System Report, International Energy Project, USA, 1985.
6. David Fulford -Running a Biogas Program: A Hand Book IT Publications, 1988.
7. Govinda P. Devkota- Biogas a source of rural energy technology in Nepal:
8. Green Energy Newsletter ~ Volume 1, No. 1, 1995.
9. HMG/N WECS, alternative Energy Technology ~ an overview and Assessment, 1994/95, Kathmandu, Nepal.
10. HMG/N, SNV/Nepal- Biogas Support Program Phase I, II, III
11. 12. O.P. Chawala - Advances in Biogas Technology, India Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 1984.
12. RONAST, 1997- Proceedings of National Workshop on Promotion of New Technologies in Nepal.
13. Soma Dutta, Ibrahim H. Rehman, Preeti Malhotra and Venkata Ramana Biogas, The Indian NGO Experience, TERI, New Delhi, 1997.
14. United Nations, New York 1997 - (Proceedings of the Workshop on Biogas And Other Rural Energy Resources, held at Suva and the Roving Seminar on Rural Energy Development held at Bangkok, Manila, Tahran and Jakarta) Energy Resource Development Series, No.19.
15. Wim J. Van Nes - Technical Biogas Potential per District in Nepal, Biogas Research Unit, Butwal, 1992.
A paper presented at the 31st International Biogas Training Course, Oct 4,2003 to Nov-18, 2003,Chengdu, P.R. China
Agni Prasad Chaulagain
